The Difference Between Intensive and Extensive Properties

The Difference Between Intensive and Extensive Properties Intensive properties and extensive properties are types of physical properties of matter. The terms intensive and extensive were first described by physical chemist and physicist Richard C. Tolman in 1917. Heres a look at what intensive and extensive properties are, examples of them, and how to tell them apart. Intensive Properties Intensive properties are bulk properties, which means they do not depend on the amount of matter that is present. Examples of intensive properties include: Boiling PointDensityState of MatterColorMelting PointOdorTemperatureRefractive IndexLusterHardnessDuctilityMalleability Intensive properties can be used to help identify a sample because these characteristics do not depend on the amount of sample, nor do they change according to conditions. Extensive Properties Extensive properties do depend on the amount of matter that is present. An extensive property is considered additive for subsystems. Examples of extensive properties include: VolumeMassSizeWeightLength The ratio between two extensive properties is an intensive property. For example, mass and volume are extensive properties, but their ratio (density) is an intensive property of matter. While extensive properties are great for describing a sample, they arent very helpful in identifying it because they can change according to sample size or conditions. Way to Tell Intensive and Extensive Properties Apart One easy way to tell whether a physical property is intensive or extensive is to take two identical samples of a substance and put them together. If this doubles the property (e.g., twice the mass, twice as long), its an extensive property. If the property is unchanged by altering the sample size, its an intensive property.

10 Steps to Training Your Brain for Peak Performance

10 Steps to Training Your Brain for Peak Performance You can get the greatest job in the world and be set up to have the greatest career you’ve always dreamed of. Think you’re done? Well, you could be. You could rest on your laurels and coast for the rest of your working days. Or you could stay sharp, keep learning, and put yourself in the path for even bigger things. How to do that? Simple. Whether you’re trying to stay sharp to get ahead or just trying to improve your memory and general mental performance, here are a few strategies to train your brain.1. Feed  it well.There is such a thing as brain food. What we eat does affect our memory and function. Get your neural circuits set up for success by eating fish high in omega fatty acids, cut back on the sugar, and eat plenty of fruits and vegetables. Taking a handful of vitamin supplements won’t hurt either. Try B-vitamins, C, E, omegas, choline, and other antioxidants.2. Exercise daily.Exercise increases blood flow and oxygen and nutrients to the brain. Twenty minutes of walking, cycling, swimming, or dancing a day can really improve your cognitive capacity. Plus it makes you look and feel better!3. Play games.Strategy, role-playing, and verbal games, even challenging crossword puzzles or Sudoku can engage your prefrontal cortex and help you build memory, self-awareness, incentive and reward processing.4. Practice meditation.Meditation can be a magic reset button for the brain. Awaken your cells and focus your mind and find yourself better prepared to face the day. Even 15 minutes a day can really make a difference.5.  Get enough sleep.Getting enough rest is absolutely crucial to peak function. If you’re not sleeping enough, you’re compromising your ability to assimilate new information. Give yourself and your brain a chance to rest. Shoot for a minimum of 7 hours a night.6. Keep learning.The day you stop learning is the day you stagnate. Start with things that interest you most, then read up as much as you can. See k out online or in-person lectures, or resources on television or the internet. And read a good book! Even one you don’t expect to be as interested in. You’ll never know where it might take you!7. Trigger your memoriesThumb through old pictures and try to recall what you were doing, eating, wearing, as well as the names of all the people. Digging back for details like these can really stimulate your memory apparatus.8. Turn off the GPS.Remember the good old days of having to write out directions and then find your way to your destination without a voice in your ear telling you to â€Å"Turn right† in 100 feet? It’s actually very useful exercise to let your brain figure out on its own how to get from point A to B. And you’ll figure out your bearings that much faster in a new place.9. Memorize something.Whether a poem or a favorite song, expanding your brain by memorizing something can really help get your brain back in shape. It will also help you t o build your vocabulary.10. Lay off the booze.Drinking in moderation is fine, but alcohol is a depressant and can slow down mental functions. If you need to be at top form, put down the martinis for a day or two. You’ll likely sleep and think much better!

Matrixes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Matrixes - Essay Example SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. SWOT analysis is a tool used for auditing the organization and its environment (Marketingteacher.com, 2011.) It is a very popular and useful tool for developing strategic management decision because it is simple and easy to use. In SWOT, strengths and weaknesses are considered as internal factors while opportunities and threats are external. This also gives the reason why SWOT analysis is sometimes called the Internal-External analysis (Mindtools.com, 2011). This is done with the help of the SWOT matrix where in the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for the organization are considered. By looking at the strengths of the organization, the possible areas for comparison with the competitors maybe discovered and this will also present the weaknesses that the organization possesses. Useful opportunities may come from looking at the strengths and trying to eliminate the weaknesses of the organization. Threats are the external factors that serve as obstacles that organization may face. SWOT analysis may help the organization in its strategic management decisions as it uncover opportunities where it is well placed to exploit and by understanding the weaknesses, threats can be managed and eliminated.

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marketing - Essay Example Moreover, it has also established low ratings in aspects such as the satisfaction of customers, how loyal customers are and consumers behaviours through word-of-mouth. Significant, positive relationships have been found between customer satisfaction and each of the aspects of service quality that were discussed above; as well as between satisfaction with service and customer loyalty; and word-of-mouth consumer behaviours with customer loyalty. There was no significant correlation found between cultural values and service quality assessments. To measure the degree to which customers uses word of mouth in line with the services provided by the Saudi Telecom Company. To analyse and examine the relationship that is present between customer satisfaction and the quality of service in Saudi Telecom Company. To analyse the relationship between the satisfaction and the loyalty of customers in Saudi Telecom Company. To analyse the relationship that has developed between word-of-mouth and custo mer loyalty in Saudi Telecom Company. ... Is the loyalty of customers and their satisfaction related in Saudi Telecom Company? Are customer loyalty and word-of-mouth linked in Saudi Telecom Company? The model presented above serves as the present study’s theoretical framework. It has been influenced by the studies conducted by Parasuraman et al. (1988). Upon the formulation of the framework, the hypotheses would be tested for validity purposes (Parusaraman, Zeithamal, Berry, 1985; Newman & Benz, 1998). 8.2.1. Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction Mittal and Kamakura (2001) stated that an individual’s satisfaction is the general assessment of a performance of a particular item or service at present. The significance of the role of customers in business is emphasized by Kassim (2001) through stating that 75 percent of a firm’s budget allocated for marketing purposes should be allotted for strategies that would retain customers, as well as to build and reinforce relationships with profitable ones. Mitta l and Kamakura (2001) discussed that a customer’s satisfaction towards an item, service or the company, is in accordance with the degree of relationship that will be formed between the consumer and the company, as satisfaction is tantamount to one’s predilection to repurchase (Kassim, 2001; Mittal and Kamakura, 2001). The hypotheses for the research questions above are: H1aa: A positive relationship exists between the level of customer satisfaction and tangibles in relation to the services that are provided by the Saudi Telecom Company. H1a0: There is no relationship present between tangibles in the services that Saudi Telecom Company provides and the amount of customer satisfaction. H1ba: Customer

Nock’s Ideas on Education Essay Example for Free

Nock’s Ideas on Education Essay Education refers to a slow and gradual process of gaining and acquiring knowledge. Training is an organized and planned process of imparting practical and hands on skills (www. osh. gov). Training is what Nock would rather wish people undergo rather than the rigorous process of learning abstracts. Nock’s view on education though largely generalized is the basic and sad truth. We should strive to train our children towards specific topics and fields instead of continually pumping them with more and more abstracts. Whereas education imparts one with theoretical knowledge regarding certain concepts and phenomena, training focuses at the application of that knowledge to practically control that phenomenon. A locomotive engineering student gains knowledge on the mechanical components and rationale behind vehicles but a mechanic practically applies this knowledge to perfect the mechanical rationale and yet he may be of modest education. It is agreeable that education takes much of an individual time and narrows his/her thinking directing it to one channel. This is at the expense of exposing one-self to diversified interests and aspects that would be beneficial to ones life. A nuclear scientist might learn so much about nuclear science and lack understanding of how to manage his financial resources. Education for sure leads to very frustrated minds, although not all. It promises sometimes what cannot be delivered leaving one consumed by an unquenchable thirst and passion for things that life cannot offer. Although this is what leads to innovations and inventions, it leaves in its wake very frustrated people. However I find Nock’s generalizations and insinuations regarding the social life unacceptable. Being educated does not simply mean that one does not associate with people. Although one may not necessarily hang out with his/her childhood playmates, they still maintain close associations with those that they enjoy the same interests with. However, I find Nock’s view regarding education and training to be real and we should heed the advice and seek to train more than we educate.

ROI in the Public Sector :: essays research papers

ROI in the Public Sector Interest in return on investment (ROI) by public sector organizations continues to grow. This interest is not isolated to large federal agencies. Myths regarding the use of ROI in government abound, prevents many agencies from developing a comprehensive approach to evaluating human resources, training, and performance improvement initiatives. The key is distinguishing what is myth versus what is reality. Efforts have been made toward more responsible performance management and measurement in the public sector. The Chief Financial Officers Act of 1990 was enacted to improve the management practices of the federal government and to ensure the production of reliable and timely financial information for use in managing and evaluating federal programs. The government Management Reform Act of 1994 added to the Chief Financial Officers Act by requiring all federal agencies to prepare and make public annual financial reports. It also authorized the Office of Management and Budget to implement a pilot program to streamline and consolidate certain statutory financial management and performance reports into a single, annual accountability report. One piece of legislation that has had influence in enhancing accountability in government agencies is The Government and Performance and Results Act of 1993. GPRA (or the "Results Act") is the primary legislative framework through which agenc ies are required to set strategic goals, measure performance, and report on the degree to which goals are met. Basically it requires government agencies to develop performance plans that outline the link between strategic goals and day-to-day operations. ROI is not the first private sector practice to be applied to public sector organizations. Total quality management (TQM), zero-based budgeting, and the balanced scorecard all had their initial beginning in the private sector and to some extent have been applied in government. While the fundamental use of ROI comes from accounting and finance (earnings divided by investment), the process of cost-benefit analysis is grounded in welfare economics and public finance. Both account for the financial benefits of a program, project, or initiative compared to the costs. The difference in the two equations is that cost-benefit analysis results in a ratio comparing monetary benefits to the program costs (BCR); ROI results in a percentage that presents the net monetary benefits (earnings) compared to the costs (investment). For many years there has been a great divide between traditional program evaluation and evaluation coming from business. Program evaluators have long been concerned with the correctness of use of methodologies, expending whatever time necessary to ensure purity of research.

The Craft Era

The first major era is now referred to as ‘craft’ manufacturing and service ‘shop’ delivery. This system was European in origin and linked to the way in which skills were developed: the apprentice–journeyman– master progression, which led to the creation of guilds of skilled people who sought to control the supply of their speciality, and the consolidation of skill within a subsector of society (as, for example, skills were passed on from father to son). This was noted for low-volume, high-variety products, where workers tended to be highly skilled and quality was built into the very process of operations. It was also appropriate for largely national markets, supplied internally with minimal imports and exports. Some craft manufacturing still remains today, in markets where exotic products and services can control demands through some unique feature or high level of desirability. For instance, some house building, furniture making, clock and watch making are still carried out by skilled craftsmen/women working on a single or few items of output at a time. While the processes and techniques used by these craftsmen/women are highly inefficient, the unique quality of their products commands a premium price, as illustrated by the secondhand value of products such as a Daniels pocket watch or a Morgan car. In the case of Morgan, however, it is a mistake to conclude that the passenger car industry might still be able to employ craft production. Morgan is unashamedly part of a sector that is closer to specialist toys than that concerned with personal transportation. It is also the end of a very thin tail, other parts of which (AC, Aston Martin, Rolls Royce, etc. have already been absorbed by volume producers, keen to operate in exotic niches for purposes that are closer to corporate advertising than to income generation. In the clothing industry, one significant sector of the industry – haute couture – is based on the craft production approach. In services, the craft era has also continued – perhaps even more so than in manufacturing. The slower pace of change within services derives from the extent to which customer processing operations can adopt new technologies and new systems. Only services that require little skill at the operating level (such as FMCG or petrol retailing) or processing large amounts of information (such as financial services) are significantly different now from what they were like even 30 years ago. Many services such as hotels, schools, hospitals, hairdressers, vehicle repair and transportation have changed very little, despite new technologies. The mass production era The second major era is known as mass production, although once again its principles were by no means restricted to manufacturing. This system grew in North America to accommodate three principal requirements of the developing giant: the need to export, the need to provide employment for a massive, largely unskilled workforce, and the need to establish itself as a world player, which meant infiltrating other regions with ideas clearly associated with the USA. In short, the Americans could not play by the European rules, so they reinvented the game: innovating by destroying the competitive position of craft production. The system was massively successful and changed the working and buying practices of the world in the first three decades of the twentieth century. In order to sell the standardized products made by standardized operations practices, mass production had to standardize the market requirements too. Fortunately, the market was immature and would do what it was told to do. Thus, mass production reversed the paradigm of craft production: volume was high with little variety. The marketing ploy (and the resultant manufacturing strategy) was exemplified by Henry Ford’s famous declaration, from now on, ‘a customer can have a car painted any colour he likes, as long as it is black! ’ In mass production, workers were typically unskilled. This was the era owing much to the contribution of F. W. Taylor’s Scientific Management, whereby workers had very narrowly defined jobs, involving repetitive tasks, and quality was left to ‘quality experts’ at the final stage of the overall process rather than being an integral part of operations at each step (Taylor, 1912). Taylor enabled firms, for the first time, to control costs, times and resources, rather than rely on skilled craftsmen and women to decide what was appropriate. Coupled with the developments made in mechanization and employee co-ordination during the European industrial revolutions, Taylor’s ideas provided an entirely different way of operating. In 1926, Encyclopaedia Britannica asked Henry Ford to christen his system and he called it mass production. He meant ‘mass’ in the sense of large volume production. Perhaps he did not see the other meaning of mass as ‘heavy and cumbersome’, which is what the system turned out to be (in terms of management systems and superstructure), once the market no longer bought what it was told. These principles originating in the 1920s were slow to be adopted in services, but by the 1970s, Ted Levitt, from Harvard Business School, was able to identify the ‘production-lining’ (Levitt, 1972) of service and the ‘industrialization’ (Levitt, 1976) of service. He cited fast food, the automatic teller machine (ATM) outside banks and supermarket retailing as examples of this. Schmenner (1986) coined the phrase ‘mass service’ to exemplify this type of service operation. More recently, the aspects of working life that are typical in this mass production context have been extended to life in general by Ritzer (1993), who refers to it as the McDonaldization of society. The shift from ‘craft’ marketing to marketing in the mass production age is clearly demarcated by the publication of Levitt’s (1960) article in the Harvard Business Review entitled ‘Marketing myopia’. In mass production, customers bought what was supplied; producers concentrated on keeping costs, and hence prices, down, and focused on selling to customers through aggressive advertising and sales forces. As organizations were product-led, operations management was relatively straightforward. Mass producing goods at the lowest cost meant minimizing component and product variety, large production runs and scientific management. The success of Ford made this view highly persuasive. In 1909, the Model T automobiles were sold for $950, but by 1916, following the introduction of the assembly line, it had fallen to $345, and three-quarters of the cars on American roads were built by Ford (Bryson, 1994). However, as Levitt (1960) pointed out, Ford was eventually outstripped by General Motors, who were not product-led but market-led. They gave customers what they wanted – choice, model updates, a range of colours (not just black! ). The symbol of this age is the brand. Originally (in the craft era) the brand was a mark on the product, often a signature – for example, on a painting – or symbol, signifying its ownership or origin. But in mass production the brand took on far more significance. It became the means by which one product (or service) could differentiate itself from a competitor’s product (or service). Procter & Gamble set up brand managers in 1931 to sell their different soap products. Later the brand also became a guarantee of product/service quality. Kemmons Wilson’s motivation in 1952 to open the first Holiday Inn hotel was his own disappointment with the ariable standards and sleaziness of the motels he stayed in whilst on a family holiday. The success of delivering a consistently standard level of service resulted in Wilson opening one hotel every two and half days in the mid-1950s. But by the 1990s, brands had come under threat. Markets are highly fragmented, the proliferation of niches makes target marketing more difficult, product and service life cycles are shortening, and product/service innovation is quicker than ever before; increasing customer sophistication has reduced the power of advertising. As a result, a more holistic view of operations management is required, as Crainer (1998) suggests: Companies must add value throughout every single process they are involved in and then translate this into better value for customers. This is because the modern era has brought profound changes in operations management and operations has to be at the heart of successful strategic thinking.

Pussy Riot

This group has approximately 11 members, with women ranging from age 20 to 33. This group's activities include staging unauthorized provocative performances in public places and then video taping them to post on the internet. These women protest with lyrical songs consisting of topics on feminism, LIGHT rights, opposition to the policies of the Russian President Vladimir Putting. They also make inks between Putting and the Russian Orthodox Church.Puss Riot is already a controversial group because they perform in Inappropriate places, but one specific performance at Moscow Cathedral of Christ the Savior threw these women overboard. Their actions were immediately stopped by church security guards and two of the group members were arrested and charged with â€Å"hooliganism motivated by religious hatred. † They were each sentenced to two years in prison. The trial for this case became exhausting and complicated very fast and retests were being held all over the world after the gr oup's sentence was announced.What is interesting about this documentary Is that, although this group Is a subculture and they are definitely going against many social norms by performing provocative unpleasant to hear songs about their beliefs, many people actually like and support them. However, others may consider this a disgusting act of pure deviance. Although this group of women may look more like a counterculture than a subculture, considering their appearance and vulgarity, they actually do not fall ender this category because they are not trying to hurt anyone.As said In the documentary, these women are nice people who Just want to express their beliefs. We all have beliefs and we all probably express them from time to time, but these women Just decided to express them In more of an Inappropriate, blunt, and passionate way that goes against the social norm. This still means that these women were deviant. They were deviant In the fact that they were going against the norm as well as In the fact that they were arrested and charged with hooliganism.

A Critical Review of Leadership Research Development Essays

A Critical Review of Leadership Research Development Essays A Critical Review of Leadership Research Development Essay A Critical Review of Leadership Research Development Essay International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 A Critical Review of Leadership Research Development Jun Liu Business School, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China Xiaoyu Liu School of Labor Relations Human Resources, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China Abstract Leadership research has gone through several phases of development in the past 80 years or so. The paper identifies the major theories in each phase, and investigates the strengths and weaknesses of the research. Among those theories, transformational/charismatic leadership and leader-member exchange (LMX) are heavily discussed. The paper also discusses the future trend of research in leadership areas. Keywords: Review, Transformational Leadership, LMX Leadership can be defined as a process that an individual influences a group of individuals to implement strategies and achieve the collective goals (Yukl, 2002). Research in the area seeks to find out what types of leaders are likely to be successful and what factors determine leadership effectiveness. Generally, leadership research has gone though four paradigms: trait approach, behavioral approach, situational approach, and the contemporary theories of leadership. The paradigms of leadership theories shift with the progress from static to dynamic view of leadership with the trait and behavioral theories reflecting a personal, the situational theories an interpersonal, and the contemporary theories a relational approach to conceptualizing leadership. That is to say leadership has been examined as intrapersonal competencies, interpersonal processes, and relational dynamics. More specifically, I review those approaches, their strengths and weaknesses as followed: The trait approach The trait theories assumed that leaders were born, not made. In the literature, Stogdill (1948, 1974) completed two comprehensive reviews by synthesizing more than 200 studies of the trait approach. His two surveys identified a group of traits that were positively associated with leadership such as intelligence, self-confidence, initiative, and persistence. However, Stogdill concluded that no combination of traits would guarantee leadership effectiveness. An individual does not become a leader solely because he or she possessed certain traits. Rather, the traits have to be relevant to situations in which the leader is functioning, thus situation should also be a part of leadership. Moreover, his studies showed that leadership was not a passive and static state but resulted from a working relationship between the leader and other group members. In essence, Stogdill’s research invoked the development of the later leadership approaches. The behavioral approach Behavioral theories focus on leader behaviors and assume that effective leaders are common in their behavior modes. Most of behavioral theories relied on the Ohio and Michigan’s studies (Stogdill, 1948), which described leadership styles based on the two dimensions of initiating structure (concern jobs and tasks, often called task-oriented behavior) and considerations (concern people and interpersonal relationships, often called relation-oriented behavior). The simple two-factor model provided a good starting point and basis for later researchers to conceptualize leadership. For example, Blake and Mouton (1964) joined the two dimensions in a model called â€Å"Leadership Grid† to describe various leadership styles. To enrich the two-factor model, later theorists also identified some supplementary leader 3 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 behaviors, for example, the participative behavior involving power sharing, delegating, and empowering (Lewin, Lippitt, and White, 1939; Miller and Monge, 1986). A key research issue in the behavioral approach is the influence of the two behavioral dimensions on organizational outcomes. Task-oriented behavior is found positively associated with subordinate performance, whereas relation-oriented behavior is related to subordinate satisfaction. Relation-oriented behavior has a moderating effect on the relationship between task-oriented behavior and performance. For example, Schriesheim and Murphy (1976) reported that task-oriented leadership without personal attention to group members might have negative effects on satisfaction and even on performance. Theorists generally agree that the two behavioral dimensions have additive effects on outcomes and â€Å"high-high† leaders who concern for both tasks and relations were expected to be more effective, though the statement has received support from only a few studies (e. . Misumi, 1985). Critique to the trait and behavioral approach The trait and behavioral approach are drawn from a personal construct perspective, which assumes that leadership occurs when a leader â€Å"express leadership† towards followers. The trait approach believes that leadership is mainly a personal attribute, better leadership results from developing the personal competencies of leaders (D ay, 2000). The behavioral approach extends the perspective by focusing on what leaders do rather than simply telling who the leaders are. The significance of the two approaches should not be underestimated because they are intuitively appealing and, with a great deal of research validating the bases of these perspectives, the approaches provide an in-depth understanding of the leader components in the leadership process (Bass, 1985). There are obvious limits with the two approaches. For example, trait approach is criticized to not provide very useful implications for training and developing leadership due to the nature of traits (Bass, 1985). Furthermore, as stated above, situation influences leadership. It is thus difficult to identify a universal set of leader traits for various contexts. Even some traits can help differentiate leaders from non-leaders, it is theoretically difficult to link traits to leadership outcomes such as follower motivation and group productivity (Yukl and Van Fleet, 1992). For the weaknesses of the behavioral approach, one criticism is that the two types of behaviors are too abstract to describe complex leadership styles; another refers to the inconsistent link between task- and relation-oriented behavior and outcomes such as morale, job satisfaction, and productivity. It is not clear how leaders’ styles are associated with performance outcomes (Bryman, 1992). The third criticism, being shared with the trait approach, is that the approaches pay too much attention to the leader perspective without considering followers and situations in which leaders exhibit their qualities and behaviors. It seems that leadership effectiveness can not be well understood unless interactions among leaders, followers and situations are studied. The situational approach Incorporating findings obtained from the previous studies, the situational approach assumes that there is no one best way that is transcendent across all situations, and further, the approach tries to discover the situational moderating variables that influence the effects of leader behaviors. The situational leadership model (Hersey and Blanchard, 1982), the contingency model (Fiedler, 1967), and the path-goal theory (House and Mitchell, 1974) are the representative situational theories. The theories have somewhat different emphases regarding their basic arguments. Specifically, situational theory emphasizes leadership flexibility – leaders should find out about their subordinates’ maturity (job and psychological) and task characteristic and then adapt their styles accordingly (Hersey and Blanchard, 1982). In the contingency model, however, leader behaviors are much more consistent and less flexible. Leadership effectiveness is 4 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 rimarily determined by selecting the right leader for a certain situation (characterized by assessing leader-member relations, task structure, and position power; Fiedler, 1967) or by changing the situation to fit the particular leader’s style. House’s path-goal model, being more complex than the other two, assumes that leadership styles vary not only with different subordinates but also with the same subordinates in different situations. On the other h and, the theories clearly share some common points. First, all the theories contain situational moderating variables. Second, they implicitly assume that leaders can properly assess pivotal follower and situational factors. Third, leaders make their behaviors contingent on the followers and the situation. Compared to the former approaches, situational models conceptualize leadership as an interpersonal process, concern with follower, task, and situational variables rather than focus only on the leader perspective. By addressing all the factors involving the leadership process, the approach provides a more comprehensive picture of the nature of effective leadership. The models share a number of weaknesses that limit their implications. First, the theories contain situational moderator variables, but the variables are often defined too ambiguously to operationalize. For example, in the situational leadership model, it is even unclear how â€Å"subordinate commitment† is combined with â€Å"competence† to form four distinct levels of â€Å"subordinate development† (Hughes, Ginnett, and Curphy, 1996). Similarly, task structure and task complexity have been ambiguously defined and measured in different ways. As a consequence, researchers could hardly generate specific and testable hypotheses. Second, the theories assume that leaders can properly identify the characteristics of followers and situation. However, the assumption is not realistic and it is very likely that different leaders in the same situation may conclude distinctively in regard to followers’ level of knowledge, maturity, leader-follower relationships, the degree of task structure, or the level of role ambiguity being experienced by followers (Vroom and Jago, 1995). These differences in leader perception could, in turn, cause the leaders to take very different actions in response to the same situation. Third, the approach tends to view leadership as an interpersonal process, but it lacks specific analyses on the dynamics of the influence process. Rather, they tend to view leadership as a â€Å"passive† process, leadership styles have to â€Å"fit† the followers and situations to obtain effectiveness. Leadership substitutes theory (Kerr and Jermier, 1978), being unique in its conceptualization, severely questions the conventional leadership wisdom by describing two types of variables (substitutes and neutralizers) that reduce the importance of formal leaders in organizations. Substitutes make formal leader unnecessary and redundant, and neutralizers prevent a leader from acting in a specified way or nullify the effects of the leader’s actions. Theorists tend to classify the theory into situational approach due to its focus on the factors (subordinate, task, and organizational characteristics) concerned by situational theories. On the other hand, Jermier and Kerr (1997) contend that the framework of leadership substitutes should be less viewed as a situational model, which calls for treating the traditional context as the independent variable to explain individual and group effectiveness. It can be believe that such efforts will complement our understanding of leadership functioning and its effectiveness. Contemporary leadership theories Unlike traditional approaches that view followers as unchanged or part of the situation, contemporary leadership theories treat followers as the counterpart of the leader and seek for positive transformation, dynamic relationships, and relational association with followers. The models try to provide insights into leadership effectiveness and implications to leadership development as well. Of the many contemporary theories, transformational/charismatic leadership and leader-member exchange (LMX) have been most heavily studied. 5 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 The transformational/charismatic theory Rather than concerns with all levels of supervisors in the organization, the transformational/charismatic theory shifts its concern to the upper leaders by separating transformational leadership (leaders) from transactional leadership (managers) (Burns, 1978). In the past twenty years, the stream of research generated large numbers of both conceptual and empirically studies with several major research issues having been addressed: First, specific leader behaviors reported by followers are used in this approach to define the transformational/charismatic leadership. In other words, the theories seem to rely heavily on the assumption of â€Å"one best way† by seeking transcendent leadership styles. For example, the four I’s (idealized influence, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation) have been most frequently examined in this stream of research. Furthermore, being different from traditional view, charisma is also conceptualized as one dimension of leader behavior, which is based on followers’ perceptions, although some dissenting opinions exist regarding the definition (Trice and Beyer, 1986). Second, the new approach argues that leaders, being different from managers, have to motivate followers rather than arbitrarily impose leader behaviors on followers or passively fit leadership styles to followers and situations. The new leadership seeks to achieve high level of motivational outcomes by transforming/changing follower self-concepts. For example, House and his colleagues (House and Shamir, 1993; Shamir, Zakay, Breinin, and Popper, 1998) proposed mechanisms that leaders use to transform follower self-concepts, which includes offering an appealing vision; making task and mission meaningful; developing a collective identity; and heightening both individual and collective self-efficacy. In the literature, the vision advocated by leaders received a large amount of attention (e. . , Bass, 1996; Shamir et al. , 1993). Third, compared to the above-mentioned approaches, the new approach better describes the underlying influence process. For example, Bass and Avolio (1993) proposed an influence process that transformational leaders evoke and meet followers’ high-order needs, which in turn promote commitment and performance. Shamir and associates’ (1993) research explained the reciprocal nat ure of mutual influence, in which leaders choose a vision that is congruent with followers’ values and identities. Reciprocally, followers select the individuals as their leaders who would like to espouse their values. Empirically, many studies have included psychological intervening variables (i. e. , psychological empowerment, social identification, role characteristics) between leader behaviors and outcome variables to examine the dynamics of influence (e. g. , Kark, Shamir, and Chen, 2003; Mackenzie et al. , 2001). Fourth, the new leadership is more change-oriented. Transformational/charismatic leaders are likely to emerge from crisis environment and they serve as change agents in organizations. Using data from 48 Fortune 500 firms, Waldman et al. (2001) illustrated a clear picture that charismatic leadership can predict performance under conditions with level of environmental uncertainty. Weaknesses and future directions of the approach Accordingly, the transformational/charismatic approach has some problems left for future research to resolve: First, the approach is criticized to regress back to the â€Å"one best way† of leadership with too much attention on leader behaviors (sometimes traits) but very little on contextual variables (Beyer, 1999). Although transformational/charismatic leadership has been examined to be applicable in various contexts, further attention should be paid to identify situational factors that facilitate or limit the effects of transformational/charismatic leadership. On the other hand, the consequences of transformational/charismatic leadership do not always appear positive; rather, some researchers have 6 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 identified the â€Å"dark side† of the new leadership (e. g. , Conger and Kanungo, 1998). For example, charismatic leadership tends to make more risky decisions that can result in serious failure. The future empirical studies should seek to identify more specific factors (i. e. , situations, leader qualities, task and follower characteristics) that induce the negative consequences. Second, the approach emphasizes the role the vision (articulated by the leader) plays in motivating followers. The underlying mechanism, however, is rather ambiguous (Conger, 1999). Simple identification and an attractive vision do not fully explain follower commitment and motivation. Moreover, the structure and content of leadership vision are also only partially understood (Conger, 1999). To resolve these problems, leadership values and the value interexchange between the leader and the follower should be incorporated in the models (Shamir et al. , 1993). Several recently emerged leadership theories (e. g. , Servant leadership, Graham, 1991; Ethical leadership, Ciulla, 1998; Value-based leadership, Fu et al. , 2002), though at the early stage of development and receiving little empirical support, provide solid rationale for remedying the deficiencies through the value viewpoint. For example, ethical leadership regards that values play a central role in the leadership process; servant leadership (Graham, 1991) argues that leadership values provide a system of rules or principles that guide the pondering, formulating, and communicating of the vision. Future studies should try to develop pragmatic models and empirically examine the effects of leadership values on leader behavior, leader-member relationship, influence process, follower behavioral and attitudinal outcomes, and leadership succession. Third, the approach has to extend its level of analysis for future development of the theories. As discussed above, transformational/charismatic leadership theories have specified the dynamic of influence process, but only at the individual or dyadic level. Although the specification helps to explain individual behavioral or attitudinal outcomes, it does not adequately address group and organizational processes (Yukl, 2002). The analysis also results in a less consideration of contextual factors involving the leadership process and the suggestion of a â€Å"universal† form of leadership. Future studies should seek to explain leadership’s effects on the interacting group including collective efficiency, group identification, etc. , and influence on the firm including culture, organizational change and so on. Finally, since the theories have addressed much about the role leaders play in organizational change, future models should include more change-related variables. For example, Yukl (2002) identifies a new behavioral dimension, change-oriented, to enrich the two factor model. Future studies should specify the real impact of the leader behavior on followers at the dyadic level, units at the group level, as well as companies at the organization level. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory Being different from other leadership theories in which a leader treats followers in a collective way (Average Leadership Style, ALS), LMX theory takes a quite different approach and makes the dyadic relationship between the leader and each follower the focal point of the leadership process. Overall, the development of LMX theory has three stages: In the early studies of LMX, a leader’s relationship to the overall work unit comprises a series of vertical dyads categorized as being of in-group (high LMX relationship) and out-group (low LMX relationship). Subordinates who get well along with the leader and are willing to expand their role responsibilities become in-group members, whereas those who maintain only formal hierarchical relationships with their leader become out-group members. Subsequent studies of LMX concerned with the relationship between LMX and organizational outcomes. Researchers found that high-quality exchanges between leaders and followers produced multiple positive outcomes (e. g. , less employee turnover, greater organizational commitment, and more OCBs). In general, 7 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 researchers determined that good LMX resulted in followers feeling better, accomplishing more, and helping the organization prosper (Graen, Liden, and Hoel, 1982). The most recent emphasis in LMX research has been on leadership making, which emphasizes that leaders should try to transform the relationship into mutual trust, respect, and obligation to each other. Leadership making develops over time and involves different phases: a stranger phase, acquaintance phase, and partner phase, with the last phase generating the highest LMX quality. By taking on and fulfilling new role responsibilities, followers move through theses three phases to develop mature partnerships with their leaders. According to Graen and Uhl-Bien (1991), the third phase corresponds to transformational leadership, whereas the first phase corresponds to transactional leadership. Weaknesses and future directions of the approach In correspondence with the above three major stages of LMX theory, the following weaknesses are likely to exist in the literature and future directions emerge for addressing the inadequacies: First, by suggesting that some members of the work unit receive special attention and the others do not, LMX theory provide negative implications to organizational justice (McClane, 1991; Scandura, 1999). The perceived inequalities between in-group and out-group can have a devastating impact on the feelings, attitudes, and behavior of out-group members. For example, McClane (1991) pointed out the existence of in-group and out-group has undesirable effects on the group as a whole no matter whether the leader actually treats the members fairly or not. Scandura (1999) provided a comprehensive framework for future empirical examining the nature of the relationship through integrating organizational justice and LMX. Second, given a plethora of empirical studies on its antecedents and consequences, LMX is regarded as a universal theory with little concern for situational variables that may affect the exchange process (Green et al, 1996). An exception is Dunegan, Duchon, and Uhl-Bien’s (1992) work on the role of task analyzability and task variety as moderating the effects of LMX on subordinate performance. They found that the relationship between LMX and performance was significant when tasks have low analyzability/high variety and high analyzability/low variety, whereas the relationship became insignificant in the â€Å"low-low† and â€Å"high-high† situations. Such kinds of effort are still desired in LMX research in order to recognize the possible contingency. Third, LMX theory emphasizes the importance of leader-member exchanges, but fails to explain how high-quality relationship is established. Although the recent models highlighted the importance of role making (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1991), mentoring (Scandura and Schriesheim, 1994), incremental influence, and type of reciprocity, the theory is still criticized for not explaining how the evolution of relationship actually occurred and how mature partnerships are built. On the other hand, the vertical relationships are likely to horizontally interact with each other. Future work needs to elaborate more about how the differentiated relationships and the interaction among LMXs evolve over time. Finally, there are questions regarding research methodologies, for instance, questions whether the principal measure of LMX theory is sufficiently refined to measure the complexities of the relationship (Garen and Uhl-Bien, 1995), and whether appropriate level of analysis and data-analytic techniques are specified and employed (Schriesheim, et al. 2002). Overall, more rigorous operationalization of the model is called for improving its validity. Conclusion Leadership is a complex process in which the leader, followers, and the situation interact with each other. Theorists have attempted to discover what traits, abilities, behaviors, relationships between leader and 8 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 follower, and/or aspects of the s ituation determine how well a leader is able to influence followers and accomplish collective goals. Based on my reviews, I have summarized the characteristics of the major theories in each of the four major paradigms and briefly discussed major findings, key research issues, strengths, weaknesses and possible future directions in regard to those theories. The two contemporary theories, namely transformational/charismatic leadership and LMX, are discussed in detail. Summarily, I would like to emphasize the following issues that should receive careful concerns in future studies: Clearly specifying the key components of theories. For transformational/charismatic leadership, theorists should clarify the nature of charisma, identify specific factors that induce possible negative consequences, set clear boundary for its behavioral dimensions, and the vision’s motivational influence on followers. LMX theory should minimize the inconsistence of defining leader-member relationship, offer clearly defined and reliable constructs, and clarify the exchange process. Extending theories by incorporating contextual factors. It has concluded that leadership is a complex process and there is no one best way to lead. Thus future studies should seek to adopt more contextual moderating variables and establish contingent model for providing specific implications for the particular situation. Effects of situational factors such as task, follower, work environment, and organizational variables should be systematically investigated in the leadership process. Clarifying the level of analysis. A good theory should include a clear and proper treatment of its level of analysis, which requires a valid and reliable measurement of the construct and choice of analytical methods. Leadership is a process involving multiple levels of factors and its effects occur at the all levels: individual, dyadic, group, and organization. Analyzing the phenomenon in a framework with clear levels and specification within- and cross-level relationships will definitely help us understand the influence process and the dynamics of leadership. The contemporary theories, however, appear to be rather obtuse to this issue. For example, transformational/charismatic leadership has not explicitly formulated its enquiring level with some appearing to be strictly at individual level (e. . , individualized consideration; Bass, 1985) while others being at higher levels (e. g. , leader behaviors that foster the acceptance of group goals; Podsakoff et al. , 1990). 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Battle of Eniwetok in World War II

Battle of Eniwetok in World War II Following the US victory at Tarawa in November 1943, Allied forces pressed forward with their island-hopping campaign by advancing against Japanese positions in the Marshall Islands. Part of the Eastern Mandates, the Marshalls had been a German possession and were given to Japan after World War I. Though held as part of the outer ring of Japanese territory, planners in Tokyo decided after the loss of the Solomons and New Guinea that the chain was expendable. With this in mind, what forces were available were moved to the area to make the islands capture as costly as possible. Commanded by Rear Admiral Monzo Akiyama, Japanese troops in the Marshalls consisted of the 6th Base Force which originally numbered around 8,100 men and 110 aircraft. While a relatively large force, Akiyamas strength was diluted by the requirement to spread his command over all of the Marshalls. Also, much of Akiyamas command consisted labor/construction details or naval troops with little infantry training. As a result, Akiyama could only muster around 4,000 effective. Anticipating that the assault would strike one of the outlying islands first, he positioned the majority of his men on Jaluit, Millie, Maloelap, and Wotje. Armies Commanders United States Vice Admiral Harry W. HillBrigadier General Thomas E. Watson2 regiments Japan Major General  Yoshimi Nishida3,500 men American Plans In November 1943, American airstrikes commenced eliminating Akiyamas air power, destroying 71 aircraft. These were partially replaced by reinforcements brought in from Truk during the following weeks. On the Allied side, Admiral Chester Nimitz initially planned a series of attacks on the outer islands of the Marshalls, but upon receiving word of Japanese troop dispositions through ULTRA radio intercepts elected to change his approach. Rather than assault where Akiyamas defenses were strongest, Nimitz ordered his forces to move against Kwajalein Atoll in the central Marshalls.   Attacking on January 31, Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turners 5th Amphibious Force landed elements of Major General Holland M. Smiths V Amphibious Corps on the islands that formed the atoll.   With support from Rear Admiral Marc A. Mitschers carriers, American forces secured Kwajalein in four days.   Capture of Engebi With the rapid capture of Kwajalein, Nimitz flew out from Pearl Harbor to meet with his commanders.   The resulting discussions led to the decision to immediately move against Eniwetok Atoll, 330 miles to the northwest.   Initially scheduled for May, the invasion of Eniwetok was assigned to Brigadier General Thomas E. Watsons command which was centered on the 22nd Marines and 106th Infantry Regiment.   Advanced to mid-February, plans for capturing the atoll called for landings on three of its islands: Engebi, Eniwetok, and Parry.   Arriving off Engebi on February 17, Allied warships commenced bombarding the island while elements of the  2nd Separate Pack Howitzer Battalion and the 104th Field Artillery Battalion landed on adjacent islets (Map). The next morning, the 1st and 2nd Battalions from Colonel John T. Walkers 22nd Marines began landing and moved ashore.   Encountering the enemy, they found that the Japanese had centered their defense in a palm grove in the islands center.   Fighting from spider holes (concealed foxholes) and the underbrush, the Japanese proved difficult to locate.   Supported by the artillery landed the previous day, the Marines succeeded in overwhelming the defenders and secured the island by that afternoon.   The next day was spent eliminating the remaining pockets of resistance. Focus on Eniwetok and Parry With Engebi taken, Watson shifted his focus to Eniwetok.   Following a brief naval bombardment on February 19, the 1st and 3rd Battalions of the 106th Infantry moved towards the beach.   Encountering fierce resistance, the 106th was also hampered by a steep bluff which blocked their advance inland.   This also caused traffic issues on the beach as AmTracs were unable to move forward.   Concerned about the delays, Watson instructed the 106ths commander, Colonel Russell G. Ayers, to press his attack.   Fighting from spider holes and from behind log barriers, the Japanese continued to slow Ayers men.   In an effort to quickly secure the island, Watson directed the 3rd Battalion of the 22nd Marines to land early that afternoon. Hitting the beach, the Marines were quickly engaged and soon bore the brunt of the fight to secure the southern part of Eniwetok.   After pausing for the night, they renewed their attack in the morning and eliminated enemy resistance later in the day.   In the northern part of the island, the Japanese continued to hold out and were not overcome until late on February 21.   The extended fight for Eniwetok compelled Watson to alter his plans for the attack on Parry.   For this part of the operation, the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 22nd Marines were withdrawn from Engebi while the 3rd Battalion was pulled from Eniwetok.    In an effort to expedite Parrys capture, the island was subjected to an intense naval bombardment on February 22.   Led by the battleships USS Pennsylvania (BB-38) and USS Tennessee (BB-43), Allied warships hit Parry with over 900 tons of shells.   At 9:00 AM, the 1st and 2nd Battalions moved ashore behind a creeping bombardment.   Encountering similar defenses to Engebi and Eniwetok, the Marines steadily advanced and secured the island around 7:30 PM.   Sporadic fighting lasted through the following day as the last Japanese holdouts were eliminated. Aftermath The fighting for Eniwetok Atoll saw Allied forces sustain 348 killed and 866 wounded while the Japanese garrison incurred losses of 3,380 killed and 105 captured.   With key objectives in the Marshalls secured, Nimitzs forces briefly shifted south to aid General Douglas MacArthurs campaign in New Guinea.   This done, plans moved forward for continuing the campaign in the Central Pacific with landings in the Marianas.   Advancing in June, Allied forces won victories at Saipan, Guam, and Tinian as well as a decisive naval triumph at the Philippine Sea.

Chemistry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Chemistry - Essay Example This could be manifested in a person suffering from bipolar disorder or related mental illnesses. As early as 1800, pharmacological studies came up with antipsychotic drug that will help doctors during psychiatric treatment. Research and surveys showed that by the year 2005, based on the report of Archives of General Psychiatry, approximately 5.7 million of adult Americans or 2.5 percent of its population were affected by bipolar disorder (BD). There are also cases of BD found among children (Geller B, Luby J, 1997). Bipolar disorder or manic-depression is a mental disorder characterized by signs of mania or depressions which can be observed in alternating episodes. Prominently, these episodes show shifts of mood swings, from extremely energetic moods to hopeless and depressive moods. It includes one or more incidents of manic behavior, disrupted sleep, fast speech, distractibility and increase in goal-oriented-activities. Together with these manic episodes are depressive episodes characterize with lost of interest, displeasures, feeling of emptiness and unworthiness. A bio-chemical explanation was presented by scientist and researchers to explain why people tend to suffer manic-depression. Biologically speaking human brain was composed of nerve cells, neurotransmitters and receptors sending messages from one another (Prof. Hokin, University of Winconsin).Over activity or under activity in these neurotransmitters or messengers of the brain could be the reason for such disorders. So bipolar disorder could be manifested whenever brain operations has gone wrong resulting to alternating poles of mania and depression. Anti-psychotic drugs are prescribed by psychiatrists to treat bipolar disorder. These are termed to be mood stabilizers and help the patient as it goes into psychiatric treatment. The most common yet old used anti-psychotic drug nowadays is lithium. Dr.